Three types of Plate boundaries

Three types of plate boundaries exist, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:

• Transform boundaries occur where plates slide or, perhaps more accurately, grind past each other along transform faults. The relative motion of the two plates is either sinistral (left side toward the observer) or dextral (right side toward the observer). The San Andreas Fault in California is one example.
• Divergent boundaries occur where two plates slide apart from each other. Mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge) and active zones of rifting (such as Africa's Great Rift Valley) are both examples of divergent boundaries.
• Convergent boundaries (or active margins) occur where two plates slide towards each other commonly forming either a subduction zone (if one plate moves underneath the other) or a continental collision (if the two plates contain continental crust). Deep marine trenches are typically associated with subduction zones. The subducting slab contains many hydrous minerals, which release their water on heating; this water then causes the mantle to melt, producing volcanism. Examples of this are the Andes mountain range in South America and the Japanese island arc.

Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics (from the Greek τέκτων; tektōn, meaning "builder" or "mason") describes the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. The theory encompasses the older concepts of continental drift, developed during the first decades of the 20th century by Alfred Wegener, and seafloor spreading, understood during the 1960s.

The outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two layers: the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

• Above is the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle.
• Below the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere. Although solid, the asthenosphere has relatively low viscosity and shear strength and can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The deeper mantle below the asthenosphere is more rigid again due to the higher pressure.

The lithosphere is broken up into what are called tectonic plates. In the case of Earth, there are eight major and many minor plates (see list below). The lithospheric plates ride on the asthenosphere.

These plates move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: convergent, or collisional boundaries; divergent boundaries, also called spreading centers; and transform boundaries. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries. The lateral movement of the plates is typically at speeds of 50–100 mm annually.

Biogeochemical Cycles

One major microbial impact on Earth is the production and fate (global cycles) of the key elements of life: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and oxygen. These elements are cycled through the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere, and the geosphere and in each of these "spheres" they are processed by microorganisms.

It has only been in the past decade that it was recognized that deep subsurface microbes also play a significant role in these global cycles. The geosphere is also the source of phosphorus and many other elements that are essential for life, such as sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and iron. Microbes in the subsurface extract these elements from rocks and minerals and make them available to plants.

The impact of microbes is also evident in the cycling of enormous amounts of carbon dioxide and methane, two gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and affect global warming. Much of the production of these gases occurs in the subsurface biosphere. Microbes may also remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in the subsurface, potentially playing a key role in slowing global warming.

Among the global biogeochemical cycles, man’s influence is greatest in the nitrogen cycle, where nitrogen is transformed through a series of different chemical forms, by microorganisms in the subsurface. One observation serves to focus attention on this important cycle. In 1950, the anthropogenic input to this cycle was about 40% of the natural (or non-anthropogenic) input.

In 2000, the anthropogenic input had reached 175% of the natural input (Science, 9 Nov 2001). This is significant because the extra nitrogen is throwing some ecosystems out of balance leading to ground waters that are unfit for human consumption and surface waters that no longer support diverse aquatic communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

This happens when nitrogen fertilizers are applied to soils and are transformed to nitrates by microbes and then leach into ground and surface waters. It is clear that understanding the connections between agriculture, groundwater, and microbes is important for the health of our world.

Microbial Ecology

Microbial ecology is the relationship of microorganisms with one another and with their environment. It concerns the three major domains of life — Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria — as well as viruses.

Microorganisms, by their omnipresence, impact the entire biosphere. They are present in virtually all of our planet's environments, including some of the most extreme, from acidic lakes to the deepest ocean, and from frozen environments to hydrothermal vents.

Microbes, especially bacteria, often engage in symbiotic relationships (either positive or negative) with other organisms, and these relationships affect the ecosystem. One example of these fundamental symbioses are chloroplasts, which allow eukaryotes to conduct photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts are considered to be endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, a group of bacteria that are thought to be the origins of aerobic photosynthesis. Some theories state that this invention coincides with a major shift in the early earth's atmosphere, from a reducing atmosphere to an oxygen-rich atmosphere.

Some theories go as far as saying that this shift in the balance of gasses might have triggered a global ice-age known as the Snowball Earth.

They are the backbone of all ecosystems, but even more so in the zones where light cannot approach and thus photosynthesis cannot be the basic means to collect energy. In such zones, chemosynthetic microbes provide energy and carbon to the other organisms.

Other microbes are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms' waste poducts. These microbes play a vital role in biogeochemical cycles. The nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle and the carbon cycle all depend on microorganisms in one way or another.

For example, nitrogen which makes up 78% of the planet's atmosphere is "indigestible" for most organisms, and the flow of nitrogen into the biosphere depends on a microbial process called fixation.

Due to the high level of horizontal gene transfer among microbial communities, microbial ecology is also of importance to studies of evolution.